THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE ECC AND WHY WE NEED IT IN TURKISH EDUCATION SYSTEM

Abstract

Like every child, children with visual impairments have the right to access education and become fully independent individuals. However, vision is one of the most essential senses to access information. Therefore, children with visual impairments face significant challenges in accessing information and participate into educational activities. This leads to a number of barrıers for people with visual impairments in becoming fully independent individuals in everyday life . The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of how vision influence children with visual impairments, how they should be educated and what they should be educated about. This discussion leads on a further discussion if an additional curriculum, apart from the national curriculum, is needed for students with visual impairments in Turkey. Therefore, an overview of important developments in creating the Expanded Core Curriculum (ECC) in the USA is provided. Moreover, this paper will give an overview of each ECC area and discuss why the ECC is crucial in education and everyday life of people with visual impairments in Turkey.

Keywords: Expanded Core Curriculum, Visual İmpairment, Turkey

REFERENCES

Act no 573, law on special education [573 Sayılı özel eğitim hakkında kanun hükmünde kararname]. (1997). Resmi Gazete, Haziran, Ankara, (23011).

Act no. 1739 regarding Turkish education [Milli eğitim temel kanunu]. (1973)  Ankara:  Resmi gazete

Act no. 2916 regarding children with special needs [2916 sayılı Özel Eğitime Muhtaç Çocuklar Kanunu]. (1983) Ankara: Resmi Gazete 5 (22), 679

Akkok, F. (2000). Special education research: A Turkish perspective. Exceptionality, 8(4), 273-279.

Akkök, F. (2001). The past, present, and future of special education: the Turkish perspective, Mediterranean Journal of Educational Studies, 6(2), 15–22.

Akkök, F., & Zelloth, H. (2010). Lifelong Guidance–a feasible policy option for Turkey. Ankara: ISKUR Dökümanlari.

Akyüz, H. E., & Kaya, H. (2014). A study on the burnout level of primary school teachers, Journal of International Social Research, 7(34).

Allman, C.B., & Lewis, S. (2014). A strong foundation: The importance of the expanded core curriculum. In C. B. Allman, , & S. Lewis, (Eds.), ECC essentials: Teaching the expanded core curriculum to students with visual impairments (pp.15-30). New York: Lueck, A. H. (2010). Functional Vision: A Practitioner's Guide to Evaluation and Intervention. (3rd ed.), New York: AFB Press.

Altunay-Arslantekin, B. (2015) The evaluation of visually impaired students’ mobility skills. Eğitim ve Bilim (Education and Science Journal Online), 40(180), 37–49. Retrieved on  December 3, 2015, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281165330_The_Evaluation_of_Visually_Impaired_Students'_Mobility_Skills

American Foundation for the Blind Press.

Arndt, K., Lieberman, L.J., & James, A. (2014). Supporting the Social Lives of Adolescents Who Are Blind: Research to Practice. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 87(2), 69-74.

Arter, C. (2013). Children with visual impairment in mainstream settings. London: Routledge.

Ataman, A. 2005. Özel gereksinimli çocuklar ve özel eğitim [Children with special needs and special education]. In A. Ataman , (Ed.), Özel gereksinimli çocuklar ve özel eğitime giriş [Children with Special Needs and Introduction to Special Education]. Ankara: Gündüz Eğitim ve Yayıncılık. [In Turkish]

Bayır, Ş., Keser, H., & Numanoğlu, G. (2010). General review on computer literacy of visually handicapped individuals in Turkey. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 9, 1475-1480.

Bishop, M., Hobson, R. P., & Lee, A. (2005). Symbolic play in congenitally blind children. Development and psychopathology, 17(02), 447-465.

Bishop, V.E. (2004). Teaching Visually Impaired Children (3rd ed.). USA: Charles C. Thomas Publisher.

Brian, A., & Haegele, J. A. (2014) Including students with visual impairments: Softball. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 85(3), 39-45.

Cakiroğlu, O., & Melekoğlu, M. A. (2014). Statistical trends and developments within inclusive education in Turkey. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 18(8), 798-808.

Çitil, M. (2007) Cumhuriyetin Ilanindan Günümüze Kadar Türkiye’de Özel Eğitim (1923-2007) [Special education in Turkey from establishment of the republic to today 1923-2007)] (Unpublished master’s thesis), Gazi University, Turkey.

Cmar, J. L. (2015). Orientation and mobility skills and outcome expectations as predictors of employment for young adults with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness (Online), 109(2), 95-104.

CNIB. (2005). Employment-related needs of blind and visually impaired working age people in British Columbia, CNIB, Toronto: Canadian National Institute for the Blind.

Conroy, P. (2014). Promoting reflective practices in special education through action research: Recommendations from pre-service teachers. Networks: On-Line Journal for Teacher Research, 16(2). Retrieved on December 3, 2014, from http://journals.library.wisc.edu/index.php/networks/issue/view/63

Corn, A. L., & Erin, J. N. (2010). Foundations of low vision: Clinical and functional perspectives. New York: American Foundation for the Blind.

Corn, A. L., Hatlen, P.,  Huebner, K. M., Ryan, F., & Siller, M. A.  (1995). The national agenda for the education of children and youths with visual impairments, including those with multiple disabilities. New York: American Foundation for the Blind.

Corn, A., Erin, J., & Lewis, S. (2003). Strategies used by visually impaired teachers of students with visual impairments to manage the visual demands of their professional role. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness (JVIB), 97(03).

Crudden, A. (2012). Transition to employment for students with visual impairments: Components for success. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 106(5), 389–399.

Dodgson, A.B. (2014). Rehabilitation workers’ perspectives of orientation and mobility training with older visually impaired people. University of Birmingham e-Thesis Repository Online. Retrieved on November 2, 2014, from http://etheses.bham.ac.uk/5078/

Douglas, G., & McLinden, M. (2005) “Visual Impairment”. In A. Lewis & B. Norwich (Eds.). Special Teaching for Special Children? Pedagogies for Inclusion, Reading: Open University Press.

Douglas, G., McCall, S., McLinden, M., Pavey, S., Ware, J., & Farrell, A. M. (2009). International review of the literature of evidence of best practice models and outcomes in the education of blind and visually impaired children. Trim, County Meath: National Council for Special Education.

Douglas, G., McLinden, M., Farrell, A. M., Ware, J., McCall, S., & Pavey, S. (2011). Access to print literacy for children and young people with visual impairment: implications for policy and practice. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 26(1), 39-46.

Douglas, G., McLinden, M., McCall, S., Pavey, S., Ware, J., & Farrell, A. M. (2011). Access to print literacy for children and young people with visual impairment: findings from a review of literature. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 26(1), 25-38.

Douglas, G., McLinden, M., Robertson, C., Travers, J., & Smith, E. (2015). Including pupils with special educational needs and disability in national assessment: Comparison of three country case studies through an inclusive assessment framework. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 63(1), 98-121.

Douglas, G., Pavey, S., Corcoran, C., & Clements, B. (2012). Evaluating the use of the ICF as a framework for interviewing people with a visual impairment about their mobility and travel. British Journal of Visual Impairment, 30(1), 6-21.

Enç, M. (2014) Bitmeyen Gece [Endless night]; Ankara: Tekışık Matbası, [In Turkish]

Eres, F. (2010). Special Education in Turkey. US-China Education Review, 7(4), 94-100.

Erin, J. N., Holbrook, C., Sanspree, M. J., & Swallow, R. M. (2006). Professional preparation and certification of teachers of students with visual impairments. Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children.

Göl, B. (2014). Kaynaştırma eğitimi alan görme yetersizliği olan ve gören öğrencilerin akran ilişkilerinin karşılaştırılması (Comparing frıendshıp of students wıth and wıthout a visual impairment who are attendıng to ınclusıve schools). Gazi University, May 2014 (unpublıshed master’s thesis).

Gold, D., & Simson, H. (2005, September). Identifying the needs of people in Canada who are blind or visually impaired: Preliminary results of a nation-wide study. In International Congress Series (Vol. 1282, pp. 139-142). Elsevier.

Gold, D., Shaw, A., & Wolffe, K. (2010). The social lives of Canadian youths with visual impairments. Journal of visual impairment & blindness, 104(7), 431.

Haegele, J. A., Lieberman, L. J., Columna, L., & Runyan, M. (2014). Infusing the Expanded Core Curriculum into Physical Education for Children with Visual Impairments. Palaestra, 28(3).

Hatlen, P. (1996). The core curriculum for blind and visually impaired students, including those with additional disabilities. RE:view Online, 28(1), 25-32. Retrieved on July 4, 2013, from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ532379

Hatlen, P. (2000). Historical perspectives. In A. J. Koenig & M. C. Holbrook (Eds.), Foundations of education: Vol. 1. History and theory of teaching children and youths with visual impairments (2nd ed., pp. 1-54). New York: AFB Press.

Hatton, D. (2014). Current Issues in the Education of Students with Visual Impairments. In R. M. Hoddapp (Ed.), International Review of Research in Developmental Disabilities, (Vol. 46). Waltham, MA: Academic Press.

Hewett, R. (2015). Investigation of data relating to blind and partially sighted people in the quarterly Labour Force Survey: October 2011 – September 2014. Retrieved from http://www.rnib.org.uk/knowledge-and-research-hub-research-reports/employment-research/labour-force-survey-2015

Hewett, R., & Keil, S. (2014). Investigation of data relating to blind and partially sighted people in the quarterly Labour Force Survey: October 2010 – September 2013. RNIB. Retrieved from http://www.rnib.org.uk/knowledge-and-research-hub/research-reports/employment-research/labour-force-survey-2014

Higgins, N., Phillips, H., Cowan, C., & Tikao, K. (2009). New Zealand educational services for kåpo (blind) Māori: What are the issues for kāpo Māori and their whānau. Journal of the Children's Issues Centre, 13(1), 13-20. Available from: <http://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=797503523379588;res=IELNZC> ISSN: 1174-0477.

Hodges, L., & Douglas, G. (2005). Short Study on Hearing and Sight Loss. Preliminary Report for the Thomas Pocklington Trust. Birmingham: University of Birmingham.

Holbrook, E. A., Caputo, J. L., Perry, T. L., Fuller, D. K., & Morgan, D. W. (2009). Physical activity, body composition, and perceived quality of life of adults with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 103(1), 17.

Holbrook, M. C., & A. Koenig (2000). History and Theory of Teaching Children and Youths with Visual Impairments. Foundations of Education. Volume I: (2nd edition). New York: AFB press.

Holmes, M. (1980). Forward to the basics: A radical conservative reconstruction. Curriculum Inquiry, 10(4), 383-418.

Işlek, Ö. (2017). An investigation into the balance of the school curriculum content for pupils with a visual impairment in Turkey (Doctoral dissertation, University of Birmingham).

Kargın, T. (2004). Kaynaştırma: tanımı, gelişimi ve ilkeleri [Inclusion: its definition, development and principals].  Ankara University, Faculty of Educational Science, Journal of Special Education, 5(2).

Kelly, S. M. (2011). The use of assistive technology by high school students with visual impairments: A second look at the current problem. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 105(4), 235.

Kesiktas, A. D. (2009). Early childhood special education for children with visual impairments: problems and solutions. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 9(2), 823-832.

Kesiktas, A. D., & Akcamete, A. G. (2011). The relationship of personnel preparation to the competence of teachers of students with visual impairments in Turkey. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 105(2), 108.

Koenig, A., & Holbrook, M. C. (2000). Foundations of Education. Volume II: Instruction Strategies for Children and Youths with Visual Impairment (2nd ed.). New York: AFB

Küçükahmet, L. (2007). Öğretim yılında uygulanmaya başlanan öğretmen yetiştirme lisans programlarinda değerlendirilmesi [An evaluation of the academic programme of teachers preparation courses]. Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi [Journal of Turkish Education Sciences], 5(2), 203-218.

Lewis, S., & Allman, C. B. (2014). Instruction and assessment: General principles and strategies. In C. B. Allman, & S. Lewis, (Eds.), ECC essentials: Teaching the expanded core curriculum to students with visual impairments (pp. 31-58). New York: AFB Press.

Lewis, S., & Allman, C. B. (2014). Learning, development, and children with visual impairments: The evolution of skills. In C. B. Allman, & S. Lewis, (Eds.), ECC essentials: Teaching the expanded core curriculum to students with visual impairments (pp. 3-14). New York: AFB Press.

Lewis, S., & McKenzie, A. R. (2010). The competencies, roles, supervision, and training needs of paraeducators working with students with visual impairments in local and residential schools. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 104(8), 464.

Lewis, S., Savaiano, E. M., Blankenship, K., & Greeley-Bennett, K. (2014) Three areas of the expanded core curriculum for students with visual impairment; research priorities for independent living skills, self-determination, and social interaction skills. In D. J. Fidler , & R. M. Hoddapp (Eds.). International Review of Research in Developmental Disabilities, Current Issues in the Education of Students with Visual Impairments. Volume 46. Waltham, MA: Academic Press.

Lieberman, L. J., Haegele, J. A., Columna, L., & Conroy, P. (2014a). How students with visual impairments can learn components of the expanded core curriculum through physical education. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness (Online), 108(3), 239.

Lieberman, L. J., Ponchillia, P. E., & Ponchillia, S. K. V. (2012). Physical education and sports for people with visual impairments and deafblindness: Foundations of instruction. New York: American Foundation for the Blind.

Lieberman, L. J., Ponchillia, P. E., & Ponchillia, S. K. V. (2014b). Infusing the Expanded Core Curriculum into Physical Education for Children with Visual Impairments. Palaestra, 28(3), 44-50.

Lohmeier, K. L. (2005). Implementing the Expanded Core Curriculum in Specialized Schools for the Blind. Re:view: Rehabilitation Education for Blindness and Visual Impairment, 37(3), 126-133.

Lohmeier, K. L. (2006). An analysis of disability-specific curriculum in a specialized School for the Blind: A case study. (Unpublished PhD dissertation) International 66(08), 2891A. (UMI No. 3187969)

Lohmeier, K. L. (2007). Integrating expanded core sessions into the K-12 program: A high school scheduling approach. RE: view, 39(1), 31.

Lohmeier, K. L. (2009). Aligning state standards and the expanded core curriculum: Balancing the impact of the No Child Left Behind Act. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 103(1), 44.

Lohmeier, K., Blankenship, K., & Hatlen, P. (2009). Expanded core curriculum: 12 years later. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 103(2), 103.

Lowenfeld, B. (1973). History of the education of visually handicapped children. The visually handicapped child in school, 1-25. John Day Company, Incorporated.

Lueck, A. H. (1999). Setting curricular priorities for students with visual impairments. RE:view, 31(2), 54.

McDonnall, M. C. (2010). Factors predicting post-high school employment for young adults with visual impairments. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 54(1), 36-45. Retrieved from http://rcb.sagepub.com/content/54/1/36

McDonnall, M. C. (2013). Employer attitudes towards persons who are blind or visually impaired as employees: Development of a measurement instrument. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 58(1), 29-36.

McDonnall, M. C. (2014). Employer attitudes towards blind or visually impaired employees: Initial development of a measurement instrument. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 58(1), 29-36.

McDonnall, M. C., & Crudden, A. (2009). Factors affecting the successful employment of transition-age youths with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 103(6), 329-341.

McDonnall, M. C., Crudden, A., & O'Mally, J. (2015). Predictors of employer attitudes toward people who are blind or visually impaired as employees. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 42(1), 41-50. doi: 10.3233/JVR-140722

McDonnall, M. C., O’Mally, J. & Crudden, A. (2014). Employer knowledge of and attitudes toward individuals who are blind or visually impaired as employees. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 108(3), 213-225.

McDonnell, J. (2010). Employment training. In J. McDonnell (Ed.), Instruction in Community Settings. Los Angeles, California: Sage.

McDonough, H., Sticken, E., & Haack, S. (2006). The expanded core curriculum for students who are visually impaired. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 100(10), 596.

McHugh, E., & Lieberman, L. (2003). The impact of developmental factors on stereotypic rocking of children with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 97(8), 453–475.

McLinden, M., & Douglas, G (2014), Education of children with sensory needs: reducing barriers to learning for children with visual impairment. In A. Holliman (Ed.), Educational Psychology: An International Perspective. London: Routledge.

McLinden, M., & Douglas, G. (2013). Sensory Needs. The Routledge International Companion to Educational Psychology, 246.

McLinden, M., & McCall, S. (2002). Learning through touch: Supporting children with visual impairment and additional difficulties. London: David Fulton Publishers.

McManus, S., & Lord, C. (2012). Circumstances of people with sight loss: secondary analysis of understanding society and the life opportunities survey. London: Natcen report for RNIB.

Melekoğlu, M. A., Cakiroğlu, O., & Malmgren, K.W. (2009) Special education in Turkey. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 13(3), 287-298.

Ministry of National Education (MEB). (2015a) Explanation: Overall Structure of Turkish National Education System. In: National Education Statistics Formal Education 2014/’15, Ministry of National Education Strategy Development Presidency. Retrieved  June 6, 2015, from: http://sgb.meb.gov.tr/istatistik/meb_istatistikleri_orgun_egitim_2014_2015.pdf [In Turkish]

Nadir, U., & Aktan, M. C. (2015). Social justice, education and school social work in Turkey. Quality, Social Justice and Accountability in Education Worldwide, 213-217. [accessed online: http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED568595.pdf#page=217

Nartgün, Ş. S. (2010). Perceptions of special education academic staff: Who should be employed as special education teachers? International Journal of Human Sciences, 7(1), 1082-1113.

Olmstead, J. E. (2005). Itinerant teaching: Tricks of the trade for teachers of students with visual impairments (2nd ed.). New York: American Foundation for the Blind.

Ozgur, I. (2004). Engelli çocuklar ve eğitimi: Özel eğitim [Children with Disabilities and their Education: Special Education]. Adana: Karahan Kitabevi.[In Turkish]

OZIDA. (2005). Başbakanlık Özürlüler İdaresi Başkanlığı (OZIDA) [Prime Minister Administration for Disabled People]. Türkiye Özürlüler Araştırması 2002 İkinci Analizi [Turkey Disabled People Study 2002 Second Analyze] Available on‐line at: http://www.ozida.gov.tr (accessed 3 March 2014) OpenURL University of Birmingham [In Turkish]

Özyürek, M. (2005). Bireyselleştirilmiş eğitim programı temelleri ve geliştirilmesi. [Individualized educational plans’ priciples and their development]. Ankara: Kök Yayıncılık.[In Turkish]

Özyürek, M. (2008). Nitelikli Öğretmen Yetiştirmede Sorunlar ve Çözümler: Özel Eğitim Örneği [The problems and solutions in preparing qualified/proficient teachers: an example of special education]. Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi [The Journal of Turkish Educational Sciences], 12(1), 189 - 226. [In Turkish]

Palmer, C. (2005). Issues and challenges in the interface between Regular School Curriculum and the Expanded Core Curriculum. International Congress Series, 1282, 922-926.

Pey T., Nzegwu F., & Dooley G. (2007). Functionality and the needs of blind and partially-sighted adults in the UK – a survey. Reading, UK: Guide Dogs for the Blind Association.

Ravenscroft, J. (2013). High attainment low employment: The how and why educational professionals are failing children with visual impairment. The International Journal of Learning, 18(12), 135–144.

Şafak, P. (2012). Görme yetersizliği olan çocukların eğitimi [Teaching children with visual impairment]. In G. A. Akçamete, (Ed.,) Genel eğitim okullarında özel gereksinimi olan çocuklar ve özel eğitim [Children with special educational needs in mainstream schools and special education], (pp. 397-440). Ankara: Kok Yayıncılık.

Sapp, W., & Hatlen, P. (2010). The expanded core curriculum: Where we have been, where we are going, and how we can get there. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 104(6), 338.

Saunders, A., Douglas, G., & Lynch, P., (2013) Tackling unemployment for blind and partially sighted people. London: RNIB. Retrieved  April 3, 2015, from http://www.rnib.org.uk/knowledge-and-research-hub/research-reports/employment-research/tackling-unemployment

Şenel, H. G. (1998). Special education in Turkey. European journal of special needs education, 13(3), 254-261.

Shaw, A., Gold, D., & Wolffe, K. (2007). Employment-related experiences of youths who are visually impaired: How are these youths faring? Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 101(1), 7-21.

Smith, D. W., Kelley, P., Maushak, N. J., Griffm-Shirley, N., & Lan, W. Y. (2009). Assistive technology competencies for teachers of students with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 103(9), 457-469.

Spragg, D., & Stone, J. (1997). The peripatetic/advisory teacher; Visual Impairment access to education for children and young people. London: David Fulton.

Sucuoğlu, B. (2006). Etkili kaynaştırma uygulamaları [Effectıve inclusive practises]. Ankara: Ekinoks Yayıncılık. [In Turkish]

Test, D. W., Mazzotti, V. L., Mustian, A. L., Fowler, C. H., Kortering, L., & Kohler, P. (2009). Evidence-based secondary transition predictors for improving postschool outcomes for students with disabilities. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals.

Webster, A., & Roe, J. (1998). Children with visual impairments: Social interaction, language and learning. Psychology Press.

Whitten, E., & Zebehazy, K. (2003). Collaboration between special schools and local education agencies: A progress report. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 97(2).

Wiener, W. R., & Sifferman, E. (2010). The history and progression of the profession of orientation and mobility. Foundations of orientation and mobility: History and theory, 486-514.

Wiener, W. R., Welsh, R. L., Blasch, B. B., Pogrund, R., Sewell, D., Anderson, H., & Roberson-Smith, B. (2010). Foundations of Orientation and Mobility (O&M). American Foundation for the Blind.

William, A & Silverman, M. D. (2002) Retrolental Fibroplasia: A Modern Parable. Retrieved on  October 3, 2014, from http://www.neonatology.org/classics/parable/

Wolffe, K. E., Ajuwon, P. M., & Kelly, S. M. (2013). A quantitative analysis of the work experiences of adults with visual impairments in Nigeria. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 107(6), 411.

Wolffe, K., & Kelly, S. M. (2011). Instruction in areas of the expanded core curriculum linked to transition outcomes for students with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 105(6), 340.

Wolffe, K., Sacks, S., Corn, A., Erin, J., Huebner, K., & Lewis, S. (2002). Teachers of students with visual impairments: What are they teaching?. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 96(5), 293–304.

Wolffe, K.E., & Sacks, S. Z. (1997). The social network pilot project: Lifestyles of students with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness. 91(5), 245-257.

Worth, N. (2013). Making friends and fitting in: a social-relational understanding of disability at school. Social & Cultural Geography, 14(1), 103-123.

Yalçın, G. (2015). Ability level and views of middle school students with visual impairments who are attending to mainstream schools regarding compensotry skills (Ortaöğretimde birlikte eğitim ortamlarına devam eden görme yetersizliğinden etkilenmiş öğrencilerin tamamlayıcı becerileri kullanma düzeyleri ve tercihlerine yönelik görüşleri). Gazi University, Master’s thesis.